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A pivotal moment in the School's history, often highlighted by Wiggershaus, was the collaboration between Max Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno during their American exile. Their joint work, Dialectic of Enlightenment (1944/1947), marked a shift away from traditional Marxist revolutionary optimism. They argued that the Enlightenment's drive to dominate nature had turned into an instrument of domination over humans. In the gas chambers of the Holocaust and the culture industry of Hollywood, they saw the endpoint of instrumental reason—reason stripped of moral reflection, serving only efficiency and domination.